Moving from PAYE to invoicing clients changes not only your tax wrappers, but how cash hits your account through the year. This tool keeps the arithmetic explicit so you can negotiate day rates with your eyes open.
Sole trader basics
Schedule D profit stacks Class 2/4 NI and income tax. Simplicity is high; unlimited liability remains unless you insure appropriately.
Limited company headlines
Ltd files accounts, runs payroll for director salary, and may pay corporation tax on retained profits. Dividends use alternate rate bands—you must follow IR35/off-payroll rules when applicable. This educational page does not file CT600 or optimise optimal salary/dividend splits.
How PAYE quoting differs from your invoice total
Employers operate PAYE at source. You see tax and primary National Insurance withheld before money reaches you. Above the upper earnings limit, NI rates step down—mirroring, imperfectly, how Class 4 works for self-employed profits.
On the freelance path, you must reserve cash for payments on account and student loan, where applicable. Our model approximates your operating profit after common business expenses—layer your own accountant's adjustments for capital allowances and basis periods.
Student loans and marginal pressure
Plan thresholds interact with your earned or trading income. At common tech salaries, an extra £1 of profit can trigger nine pence of student loan alongside income tax and NI—an effective marginal rate that surprises people who only looked at headline income tax bands.
Pension auto-enrolment
We assume a typical employee contribution for illustration and show employer pension as part of total reward. You can adjust figures to mirror your scheme. Drawdown, annual allowance, and tapered protections are outside the scope of this simple sheet.
Practical Ltd checklist
- Confirm IR35 status before assuming outside dividends. - Budget accountant + Companies House annually. - Model employer NIC on director salary when paying PAYE from the company. - Seek FCCA/ACA advice before incorporating purely for “tax savings”.
Worked example: £50,000 salary — what you keep
A £50,000 PAYE employee (outside London, typical 1257L code) often lands around £38,200 net after income tax (~£6,400), employee NI (~£3,900), and pension auto-enrolment (~£1,500 employee). The employer also pays ~£6,900 employer NI (13.8% above secondary threshold on relevant bands) plus ~£1,100 employer pension—~£8,000 you never see on the payslip. A sole trader with £50,000 trading profit—after income tax (~£6,800), Class 2+4 NI (~£3,600), typical accountant (~£1,200), insurance/software (~£900), and no paid holiday accrual—often keeps ~£37,500 cash before you budget unpaid admin days.
| Item | PAYE employee (£50k) | Sole trader (£50k profit) |
|---|---|---|
| Gross / profit | £50,000 | £50,000 |
| Income tax | −£6,400 | −£6,800 |
| NI (employee / Class 2+4) | −£3,900 | −£3,600 |
| Employee pension (5%) | −£1,500 | £0 (optional SIPP) |
| Employer pension (3%) | benefit ~£1,100 | £0 |
| Accountant | — | −£1,200 |
| PII, software, memberships | — | −£900 |
| ≈ Cash after tax & core costs | ≈ £38,200 | ≈ £37,500 |
Illustrative using 2025/26-style bands in the tool. Student loans, salary sacrifice, and benefits-in-kind move both columns. Employer NI is a hidden **~13.8%** load on payroll.
Common mistakes when comparing UK net pay
Ignoring employer National Insurance
On many payrolls, employer NI at 13.8% is the biggest invisible line. A £50k hire often costs the company ~£56k–£58k loaded—your freelance day rate must recover that stack, not just your gross.
Comparing PAYE to outside-IR35 when you are inside
Inside IR35 engagements are taxed like employment via PAYE. Quoting “Ltd rates” against a PAYE salary without adjusting for deemed employment tax is misleading.
Forgetting VAT registration dynamics
Above £90,000 turnover (2024/25 threshold), VAT usually applies. Flat Rate Scheme can simplify cash flow but changes effective margins—model it explicitly for your sector rate.
Treating dividends as free money
Ltd + dividends stacks corporation tax, salary, and dividend tax. This page models sole trader cash; use a separate sheet for optimal salary/dividend splits.
Who benefits most from freelancing in the UK?
When contracting tends to win
Freelancing is financially attractive when:
- Your **day rate** clears **£500** sustainably in your market (London-weighted niches often higher).
- You are **outside IR35** or can price the risk explicitly.
- You keep **~170+ billable days/year** after holiday and sales.
- You can claim **legitimate expenses** (equipment, travel, home office where allowed).
When PAYE is safer
Staying employed makes more sense when:
- Your equivalent rate sits **under ~£400/day** once you add bench time.
- You rely on **employer benefits** (private medical, death cover, strong pension match).
- You need **paid sick leave** and predictable cash—statutory sick pay alone is thin for freelancers.
- Your sector is **high-dispute IR35** and clients force umbrella/PAYE.
FAQ
Depends on profit level, dividend policy, pension, and IR35—use a specialist for split optimisation; this site shows sole-trader style cash as a baseline.
No—debts attach to you personally; Ltd can ring-fence operational liability subject to proper governance.
Often yes for simplicity—deemed employment flows may negate many classic Ltd advantages; verify with a contractor accountant.